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been improving chemical recovery and generating process steam and electricity at higher ef ciencies and with lower capital costs than have conventional technologies Pulp and paper industry by-products that can be gasi ed include hogged wood, bark, and spent black liquor For biomass gasi cation, organic materials are heated with less oxygen than that needed for ef cient combustion Since combustion is a function of the mixture of oxygen with hydrocarbon fuel, there is a stoichiometric amount of oxygen and other conditions to determine if biomass gasi es or pyrolyzes to a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, known as synthesis gas or syngas Gaseous fuels mix with oxygen more easily than do liquid fuels, which in turn mix more easily than solid fuels Therefore, inherently, syngas, burns more ef ciently and cleanly than the solid biomass from which it is made.

a deviation of 4.73%. The two deviations are multiplied together to form the contribution to covariance for the period. We can see in cell H11 the large contribution to covariance for that month equal to 34.73. 2. Periods where the fund and benchmark returns move in opposite directions, relative to their averages, contribute negatively towards covariance. In month 11 the fund return fell below its own average, but the benchmark return was above average. The product of the differences leads to a negative contribution to covariance equal to 1.54. A total positive covariance indicates that the return series are associated, in that they move together. A negative covariance indicates that they move in opposite directions. This would be an interesting property for a fund to have because of its diversi cation bene ts. When there is no relation between the fund and the benchmark returns, the products of the monthly differences will sometimes be positive and sometimes be negative. Averaging these over the entire period produces a low or zero covariance. Exhibit 11.3 summarizes the interpretation of covariance. The fund has a covariance with the benchmark equal to 13.30, but what does this mean Covariance is dif cult to interpret as anything other than the average product of the differences between the fund and benchmark return deviations. Covariance is also dif cult to use for portfolio comparisons because it is impacted by the absolute size of the returns.

Biomass gasi cation can improve the ef ciency of large-scale biomass power facilities Forest industry residues and specialized facilities such as black liquor recovery boilers used in pulp and paper industry can be major sources of biomass power Syngas can also be burned in gas turbines, a more ef cient electrical generation technology than steam boilers, for whose use solid biomass and fossil fuels are limited Most electrical generation systems are relatively inef cient, because half to twothirds of the energy is lost as waste heat If such heat is used for an industrial process, space heating, or another purpose, the ef ciency can be greatly increased Small, modular biopower systems are more easily used for such cogeneration than are most large-scale electrical generation Syngas mixes more readily with oxygen for combustion.

N OT E Any column in a dataset that has a name that includes spaces or a nonalphanumeric character must be enclosed within brackets ([ ]) in your SQL statement. For example, the SQL statement selecting data from a column called Last Name would look like this: SELECT [Last Name] FROM EmployeeTable.

where the tilde on the expectation denotes the expectation under the measure Q. Thus, the expectation under the new measure is the expectation of the random variable X multiplied by the Radon-Nikodym derivative. When dealing with conditional expectations, it can be shown that: dQ t E X X = dQ E t dQ

In this example, the filtered list shows the rows that meet either of the following conditions:

It also mixes more readily with chemical catalysts than solid fuels do, thus enhancing its ability to be converted to other valuable fuels, chemicals, and materials The Fischer Tropsch process converts syngas to liquid fuels, which aids in transporting this fuel [11] The process is named after two German coal researchers, who discovered the method in 1923 A variety of other catalytic processes can turn syngas into a myriad of chemicals or other potential fuels or products, and it is used for the synthesis of hydrocarbons and other aliphatic compounds Synthesis gas reacts in the presence of an iron or cobalt catalyst; much heat is involved, and such products as methane, synthetic gasoline and waxes, and alcohols are made, with water or carbon dioxide produced as a by-product In other words, the water-gas shift process converts syngas to more concentrated hydrogen for fuel cells.

ifconfig eth0 ip 10.0.0.2 route add default gw 10.0.0.1 echo nameserver 11.22.33.44 > /etc/resolv.conf